Class 11 study notes

Base and derived units, the seven SI base units and the constants that define them, the radian and steradian, and units outside SI, with 5 solved examples.

Counting significant figures, scientific notation and order of magnitude, arithmetic and rounding rules, and uncertainty in results, with NCERT Examples 1.1 and 1.2 and 3 more.

The seven base dimensions, NCERT’s volume, force and velocity examples, a table for common quantities, dimensionless quantities, and 5 solved examples.

Dimensional formula and dimensional equation with NCERT’s examples, how to obtain them from a relation, a table of common formulae, and 5 solved examples.

Principle of homogeneity, checking equations, dimensionless quantities, deducing the pendulum formula, limitations, and NCERT Examples 1.3 to 1.5 worked.

Instantaneous velocity as the limit of the average velocity, NCERT Table 2.1 and Example 2.1, the slope of the x-t graph, and instantaneous speed.

Average and instantaneous acceleration, x-t graphs for positive, negative and zero acceleration (NCERT Fig. 2.2), v-t graphs (NCERT Fig. 2.3), and the area under the v-t graph.

The three equations from the v-t graph and by calculus, free fall and Galileo’s odd numbers, stopping distance and reaction time, with NCERT Examples 2.3 to 2.7.

Scalars and vectors, notation, position and displacement vectors, equality of vectors and free vectors, with NCERT Exercises 3.1 to 3.3 and 3.8 to 3.11 worked.

How a positive or negative factor changes a vector’s magnitude and direction, multiplying by quantities with dimensions, the rules of scalar multiplication, and unit vectors.

The triangle and parallelogram laws, commutative and associative addition, the null vector and subtracting vectors, with NCERT Example 3.1 and Exercise 3.7 worked.

Resolving a vector along two directions, unit vectors î, ĵ, k̂, rectangular components A cos θ and A sin θ, magnitude and direction from components, and 3D components.

Adding vectors component by component, the magnitude and direction of the resultant, the laws of cosines and sines (NCERT Example 3.2), and NCERT Example 3.3 worked.

Position vector and displacement, average and instantaneous velocity along the tangent, acceleration in a plane, with NCERT Example 3.4 and Exercises 3.17 and 3.20 worked.

The equations v = v_₀ + at and r = r_₀ + v_₀t + ½at^² in vector and component form, independent x and y motions, with NCERT Example 3.5 and Exercise 3.18 worked.

Projectile equations, the parabolic path, time of flight, maximum height and range, with NCERT Examples 3.6 to 3.8 and Exercises 3.12 and 3.13 worked.

Centripetal acceleration v^²/R towards the centre, its derivation from similar triangles, angular speed, period and frequency, with NCERT Example 3.9 and Exercises 3.14 to 3.16.

Aristotle’s law of motion in NCERT’s words, why friction made it look true, and why uniform motion needs zero net force, with 3 solved examples.

Galileo’s single and double inclined plane experiments, rest and uniform motion as equivalent states, and inertia with mass as its measure, with a figure.

Statement of the law, inertia and mass as its measure, inertial frames, and everyday examples to explain in your own words.

Deriving F = ma from F = dp/dt, the newton as a unit, and numericals on impulse and apparent weight in a lift.

Naming action-reaction pairs and explaining why they act on different bodies, with daily-life examples.

Deriving the law from Newton’s second and third laws, the recoil of a gun and everyday uses, with 3 solved examples and 7 practice questions.

Conditions for equilibrium under two, three or more concurrent forces, the triangle and polygon of forces, and resolving forces into components, with a figure.

Contact forces, normal reaction, tension and spring force, then static, kinetic and rolling friction and the laws of friction, with two figures and solved examples.

Centripetal force from the second law and what supplies it, then a car on a level road and on a banked road, with a figure and NCERT’s results.

System and environment, free-body diagrams and NCERT’s step-by-step method, with blocks in contact, an Atwood machine and a block pulled by a hanging block.

Definition and meaning of the scalar product, its properties, the component form and the angle between two vectors, the mathematical tool for work.

Statement of the work-energy theorem, its derivation from v^² − u^² = 2as, and its use for speeds and stopping distances, with 3 solved examples.

Definition of work, positive, negative and zero work with everyday cases, and the joule and other units, with 3 solved examples.

Definition and properties of kinetic energy, its unit and dimensions, and everyday examples, with NCERT’s bullet example and 3 solved examples.

Work as the area under the force–displacement graph and as a definite integral, with a figure and NCERT’s example of a tiring push against friction.

The calculus proof of the work-energy theorem for a variable force, what the theorem leaves out compared with the second law, and 3 solved examples.

Potential energy as stored energy, gravitational potential energy mgh near the Earth, and conservative and non-conservative forces, with 3 solved examples.

The principle and its derivation, three tests for a conservative force, a falling ball and NCERT’s vertical-circle example, with a figure and 3 solved examples.

Hooke’s law, the work done by a spring force, why the spring force is conservative, and the energy of a block on a spring, with a figure and 3 solved examples.

Average and instantaneous power, power as force times velocity, and the watt, horsepower and kilowatt hour, with NCERT’s lift example and 3 solved examples.

Elastic and inelastic collisions, one- and two-dimensional collisions with NCERT’s neutron and billiard examples, and scattering, with a figure and 3 solved examples.

What a rigid body is and the kinds of motion it can have: pure translation, rotation about a fixed axis or point, and translation plus rotation, with a figure.

The centre of mass of two particles, of many particles and of a rigid body, with NCERT’s triangle example, symmetry arguments and a figure.

The velocity and acceleration of the centre of mass derived from its definition, MA = F_ext, why internal forces cancel, and NCERT’s exploding projectile.

Total momentum P = MV, Newton’s second law for a system, conservation of total momentum, and NCERT’s radium decay and binary stars, with a figure.

The definition, the right-hand and screw rules, the properties of the cross product, unit-vector products and the determinant form, with NCERT Example 6.4.

Angular displacement and velocity, v = ωr for every particle, angular velocity as a vector with v = ω × r, and angular acceleration, with a figure.

Torque τ = r × F and the moment arm, angular momentum l = r × p, the proof that dl/dt = τ, and conservation of angular momentum, with a figure.

The two conditions of equilibrium, couples, the principle of moments and mechanical advantage, and the centre of gravity, with NCERT’s knife-edge and ladder examples.

I = Σmr^² from the kinetic energy of rotation, the radius of gyration, and NCERT’s table for rings, discs, rods, cylinders and spheres, with a figure.

Angular position, velocity and acceleration, the three equations for constant angular acceleration with their derivations, and NCERT’s motor-wheel example.

Which torques count for a fixed axis, work dW = τ dθ, power P = τω, the energy proof of τ = Iα, and NCERT’s Table 6.2 and flywheel example.

Why L = Iω along a fixed axis, d(Iω)/dt = τ, and conservation of angular momentum with NCERT’s swivel-chair experiment and turntable exercise, with a figure.

The law of orbits, the law of areas from conservation of angular momentum, and the law of periods with NCERT’s planetary data, with a figure.

Newton’s law F = Gm_₁m_₂/r^², the Moon test, the vector form and superposition, and NCERT’s two results for a uniform spherical shell, with a figure.

What G is, its unit and dimensions, and how Cavendish’s torsion balance measures it, with a figure and NCERT’s equilibrium equation.

The Earth as concentric shells, the force at a point outside and inside, g = GM_E/R_E^² and the mass of the Earth from g, with a figure.

g at a height h, exact and for small h, and g at a depth d for a uniform Earth, both derived from the shell results, with a graph of g against distance.

mgh near the surface, the general U = −GMm/r with the zero at infinity, systems of particles and gravitational potential, with a graph and NCERT Example 7.3.

Escape speed from energy conservation, √(2GM/R) = √(2gR) ≈ 11.2 km/s, the Moon’s escape speed and atmosphere, and NCERT Example 7.4 worked in full.

Orbital speed and period from gravity as the centripetal force, Kepler’s third law for satellites, the 85-minute orbit, and NCERT Examples 7.5 to 7.7 worked out.

Kinetic, potential and total energy of a satellite in a circular orbit, why the total is negative, with a graph and NCERT Example 7.8 worked with its printing errors corrected.

Elasticity, elastic deformation and plasticity in NCERT’s words, why no solid is truly rigid, the atomic picture, permanent set, and brittle versus ductile.

Stress as restoring force per unit area, its unit and dimensions, and the three kinds: longitudinal, shearing and hydraulic, each with its strain, with a figure and 4 worked examples.

Hooke’s law in NCERT’s words, stress = k × strain and the modulus of elasticity, a wire as a spring, where the law fails, with a graph and 4 worked examples.

The stress-strain curve of a metal point by point (proportional limit, yield point, ultimate strength, fracture), permanent set, brittle and ductile materials and elastomers, with NCERT data.

Young’s, shear and bulk moduli, compressibility, Poisson’s ratio and elastic energy in a wire, with NCERT Tables 8.1–8.3 data and NCERT Examples 8.1–8.5 worked in full.

The thickness of a crane’s rope, the sag of a beam and the I-section, pillars, and why mountains stop at about 10 km, with NCERT’s numbers checked and 3 worked examples.

Pressure and density, Pascal’s law, pressure at depth, the barometer and manometer, and hydraulic machines, with NCERT Examples 9.1–9.6 worked in full.

Steady flow and streamlines in NCERT’s words, why streamlines never cross, the equation of continuity, and turbulent flow beyond the critical speed, with 4 worked examples.

Bernoulli’s equation derived from the work-energy theorem, when it applies, Torricelli’s law and dynamic lift, with NCERT Example 9.7 and 4 more worked examples.

Viscosity as internal friction, the coefficient of viscosity and its unit, Stokes’ law and terminal velocity, with NCERT Examples 9.8 and 9.9 worked in full.

Surface energy and surface tension, the angle of contact, drops and bubbles, capillary rise and detergents, with NCERT Example 9.10 and 5 more worked examples.

Temperature as hotness, heat as energy in transit because of a temperature difference, thermal equilibrium and units, with a figure and 4 worked examples.

Thermometers, the ice and steam points, the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales and converting between them, with a graph and 4 worked examples.

Boyle’s and Charles’ laws, the ideal-gas equation PV = μRT, the constant-volume gas thermometer, absolute zero and the kelvin scale, with 5 worked examples.

Linear, area and volume expansion, α_V = 3α_l, expansion of gases, thermal stress and the anomalous expansion of water, with NCERT Example 10.2 and 3 more worked examples.

Heat capacity, specific heat capacity and molar specific heat, ΔQ = msΔT, NCERT Tables 10.3–10.4 and why water’s high specific heat matters, with 5 worked examples.

The principle of calorimetry, NCERT’s calorimeter and the method of mixtures, with NCERT Example 10.3 and 4 more worked examples.

Melting, regelation, boiling and its dependence on pressure, sublimation, the triple point and latent heat Q = mL, with NCERT Examples 10.4 and 10.5 and 3 more worked examples.

Conduction with H = KA(T_C − T_D)/L, convection and sea breezes, radiation, the Dewar flask, Wien’s law and the Stefan–Boltzmann law, with NCERT Examples 10.6 and 10.7 and 3 more worked examples.

Newton’s law of cooling, NCERT’s cooling activity, the exponential cooling equation and the log-graph test, with NCERT Example 10.8 and 3 more worked examples.

System and surroundings, equilibrium states, adiabatic and diathermic walls, and thermal equilibrium between two gases, with a figure and 3 worked examples.

The zeroth law in NCERT’s words, the experiment behind it, and how it defines temperature and justifies thermometers, with a figure and 4 worked examples.

Internal energy as a state variable, heat and work as two modes of energy transfer, heat as energy in transit, and the caloric history, with 4 worked examples.

The first law ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW, its sign convention, path-dependence of heat and work, and ΔW = PΔV, with NCERT’s boiling-water example and 4 more worked examples.

Heat capacity, specific and molar specific heat, the 3R law for solids with NCERT Table 11.1, the calorie and water’s specific heat, and Mayer’s relation with its proof, with 5 worked examples.

State variables for equilibrium states, non-equilibrium examples, the equation of state PV = μRT and isotherms, and extensive versus intensive variables, with 4 worked examples.

Quasi-static, isothermal, adiabatic, isochoric, isobaric and cyclic processes, with work done in each from NCERT Eqs. 11.12–11.17, a P–V figure and 6 worked examples.

Why the first law is not enough, heat engines and refrigerators, and the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements in NCERT’s words, with 4 worked examples.

What makes a process reversible, NCERT’s examples of irreversible processes and their two causes, and why reversible engines are the most efficient, with 4 worked examples.

Why the best engine is reversible, the four steps of the Carnot cycle, the derivation of η = 1 − T_₂/T_₁, Carnot’s theorem and the thermodynamic temperature scale, with 5 worked examples.

The atomic hypothesis, ancient and Dalton’s atomic ideas, Avogadro’s and Gay-Lussac’s laws, and molecular spacing in solids, liquids and gases, with 5 worked examples.

The ideal-gas equation in terms of molecules, Avogadro’s hypothesis and number, real gases, Boyle’s and Charles’ laws and Dalton’s law, with NCERT Examples 12.1–12.4 and 2 more.

The assumptions of kinetic theory, the derivation of P = (1/3)nm⟨v^²⟩, the kinetic meaning of temperature and rms speed, with NCERT’s worked examples and 3 more.

Degrees of freedom of translation, rotation and vibration, the law of equipartition of energy and the energy per molecule for monatomic and diatomic gases, with 5 worked examples.

Specific heats of monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic gases and of solids from equipartition, compared with NCERT Tables 12.1–12.3, with NCERT Example 12.8 and 3 more.

The swept-cylinder derivation of the mean free path, the √2 correction, NCERT’s estimate for air and NCERT Example 12.9 with their slips corrected, and 5 solved examples.

Periodic and oscillatory motion, period and frequency, displacement in the wider sense, and periodic functions with Fourier’s theorem, with NCERT Examples 13.1 and 13.2 and 3 more.

The SHM equation x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ), amplitude, phase, phase constant and angular frequency, with NCERT Example 13.3 and 4 more examples.

SHM as the projection of uniform circular motion, the reference circle, the x- and y-projections, and NCERT Example 13.4 with 3 more examples.

Velocity and acceleration in SHM from the reference circle and by differentiation, their phase relations, and NCERT Example 13.5 with 4 more examples.

The force law F = −kx, the restoring force and force constant, k = mω^², the spring–block period and NCERT Example 13.6, with 5 solved examples.

Kinetic, potential and total energy in SHM as functions of time and position, why the total stays constant, and NCERT Example 13.7 with 4 more examples.

Forces on the bob, the torque derivation of T = 2π√(L/g), the small-angle approximation with NCERT Table 13.1, and NCERT Example 13.8 with 4 more examples.

What a wave is, mechanical, electromagnetic and matter waves, how a medium carries a wave, and why waves carry energy but not matter, with 5 solved examples.

Transverse and longitudinal waves, compressions and rarefactions, which media carry which waves, water surface waves, and NCERT Example 14.1 with 4 more examples.

The equation y = a sin(kx − ωt + φ), amplitude and phase, wavelength and angular wave number, period, angular frequency and frequency, and NCERT Example 14.2 with 4 more examples.

Wave speed v = λν = ω/k, waves on a string, the speed of sound in fluids and solids, and Newton’s formula with Laplace’s correction, with NCERT Examples 14.3–14.4 and 3 more.

The principle of superposition, pulses crossing, two harmonic waves with a phase difference, and constructive and destructive interference, with 5 solved examples.

Reflection at rigid and free boundaries, standing waves, nodes and antinodes, normal modes of strings and pipes, and NCERT Example 14.5 with 5 more examples.

Why beats happen, the beat frequency ν_₁ − ν_₂, the pitch heard, and tuning instruments with beats, with NCERT Example 14.6 and 4 more examples.

Chemistry in health, food, new materials, industry and the environment (NCERT Section 1.1), NCERT’s history of chemistry from the unit’s opening pages, 3 solved examples and 6 practice questions.

States of matter and their particle pictures, and the classification into mixtures, elements and compounds, with NCERT’s examples, 3 solved examples and 6 practice questions.

Physical and chemical properties, the SI base units and prefixes, mass, volume, density and temperature scales, with NCERT’s out-of-date SI details corrected and 4 solved examples.

Scientific notation, significant figures, precision and accuracy, rounding and the unit factor method, with NCERT Exercises 1.16, 1.18–1.20, 1.21(b), 1.22, 1.27 and 1.31 worked.

The five laws of chemical combination as NCERT states them, with Proust’s data, the water and hydrogen peroxide example, NCERT Exercises 1.21 and 1.26, and 4 solved examples.

Dalton’s four postulates in NCERT’s words, how they explain the laws of chemical combination, why they fail for gas volumes, and 3 solved examples.

The carbon-12 scale and the unit u, average atomic mass from isotopes, molecular and formula masses, with NCERT Problem 1.1 and Exercises 1.1, 1.9 and 1.32 worked.

The mole and the Avogadro constant as defined since 2019, molar mass, and converting between mass, moles, particles and gas volume, with NCERT Exercises 1.10, 1.28, 1.30 and 1.33 worked.

Mass per cent of elements, empirical and molecular formulas step by step, with NCERT Problem 1.2 and Exercises 1.2, 1.3, 1.7, 1.8 and 1.34 worked.

Balanced equations, balancing, the limiting reagent and the four concentration terms, with NCERT Problems 1.3 to 1.8 and twelve NCERT exercises worked, and NCERT’s slips corrected.

Cathode rays, Thomson’s e/m experiment, Millikan’s oil drop, canal rays, protons and neutrons, with NCERT Table 2.1 and Exercises 2.1, 2.2, 2.38 and 2.39 worked.

Thomson’s and Rutherford’s models, the α-scattering results, atomic and mass numbers, isotopes and isobars, and why Rutherford’s atom is unstable, with NCERT Problems 2.1 and 2.2.

Electromagnetic waves, Planck’s quantum, the photoelectric effect, dual behaviour, line spectra and the hydrogen spectrum, with NCERT Problems 2.3 and 2.5 to 2.9 worked and NCERT slips corrected.

Bohr’s postulates, orbit radii and energies, hydrogen-like ions, how the model explains the hydrogen spectrum, and its limitations, with NCERT Problems 2.10 and 2.11 worked.

de Broglie’s dual behaviour of matter and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, why Bohr’s model fails, with NCERT Problems 2.12 to 2.16 worked and NCERT slips corrected.

Schrödinger’s equation, orbit and orbital, the four quantum numbers, shapes and nodes of s, p and d orbitals, the n + l rule, aufbau, Pauli, Hund, configurations and the Cr and Cu exceptions.

Why chemists classify the elements: 31 known in 1800, 63 by 1865, 118 today, and how a classification organises facts and predicts new elements, with NCERT’s out-of-date count corrected.

Döbereiner’s triads, de Chancourtois, Newlands’ octaves, Lothar Meyer and Mendeleev’s periodic law, gaps and predictions for gallium and germanium, with NCERT Exercise 3.2.

Moseley’s X-ray work, the modern periodic law, why atomic number fixes Mendeleev’s anomalies, and the long form with 7 periods and 18 groups, with NCERT Exercises 3.3, 3.6 and 3.33.

Why IUPAC gives temporary names, the digit roots and the “ium” rule, three-letter symbols, official names up to 118, with NCERT Problem 3.1 and three Table 3.5 misspellings corrected.

How the periods follow the filling of orbitals (2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32) and why groups have similar outer configurations, with NCERT Problem 3.2 and Exercises 3.4 and 3.8.

The s, p, d and f blocks with their outer configurations and properties, the places of H and He, and metals, non-metals and metalloids, with NCERT Problems 3.3 and 3.4.

Atomic and ionic radius, ionisation enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, valence, second-period anomalies and reactivity, with NCERT Problems 3.5 to 3.10 worked.

Lewis symbols, Kössel’s ionic view, the octet rule, covalent bonds, writing Lewis structures, formal charge and the limits of the octet rule, with NCERT Problems 4.1 and 4.2.

Factors favouring ionic bonds, the ionic crystal, the NaCl energy balance and lattice enthalpy, with NCERT Exercise 4.6 answered.

Bond length, angle, enthalpy and order, resonance, polar bonds and dipole moment, and Fajans’ rules, with NCERT Problems 4.3 and 4.4 and the NH_₃/NF_₃ dipole comparison.

VSEPR postulates, shapes with and without lone pairs (NCERT Tables 4.6–4.8), why lone pairs shrink bond angles, with Exercises 4.7, 4.8 and 4.21 answered.

Formation of H_₂ by orbital overlap, positive, negative and zero overlap, σ and π bonds and their strength, with NCERT Exercises 4.28, 4.29, 4.32, 4.33 and 4.37 answered.

Features and conditions of hybridisation, sp, sp^², sp^³ with BeCl_₂, BCl_₃, CH_₄, NH_₃, H_₂O, carbon in ethane, ethene and ethyne, PCl_₅ and SF_₆, with NCERT Exercises 4.24–4.27, 4.30 and 4.38 answered.

Features of MO theory, LCAO, conditions for combination, σ and π orbitals, the two energy orders, bond order and magnetism, with NCERT Exercises 4.34, 4.35 and 4.40 answered.

MO configurations and bond orders of H_₂, He_₂, Li_₂, C_₂, N_₂ and O_₂, why O_₂ is paramagnetic, B_₂ to Ne_₂ from NCERT Fig. 4.21, with Exercise 4.36 answered.

Cause of hydrogen bonding, intermolecular (HF, water) and intramolecular (o-nitrophenol) bonds, extent by state, with NCERT Exercise 4.39 answered.

System and surroundings, open, closed and isolated systems, state functions, internal energy and the first law ΔU = q + w, with NCERT Problem 5.1 and Exercises 5.1, 5.2 and 5.7.

Pressure–volume work, reversible and free expansion, enthalpy and ΔH = ΔU + ΔngRT, extensive and intensive properties, heat capacity and Cp − CV = R, with NCERT Problems 5.2–5.5.

Bomb calorimeter (ΔU at constant volume) and constant-pressure calorimeter (ΔH), signs of heat, with NCERT Problem 5.6 worked.

Standard reaction enthalpy, phase changes, enthalpy of formation, thermochemical equations and Hess’s law, with NCERT Problem 5.7 and Exercises 5.3, 5.5 and 5.10–5.14.

Enthalpies of combustion, atomisation, bond enthalpy, lattice enthalpy and the Born–Haber cycle, solution and dilution, with NCERT Problem 5.9 and Exercise 5.15.

Spontaneous processes, why enthalpy alone fails, entropy and ΔS(total), Gibbs energy ΔG = ΔH − TΔS, second and third laws, with NCERT Problems 5.10, 5.11 and Exercises 5.6, 5.16–5.19, 5.21, 5.22.

Equilibrium as minimum Gibbs energy, ΔrG = 0, ΔrG⊖ = −RT ln K, with NCERT Problems 5.12–5.14 and Exercise 5.20 worked.

Solid–liquid, liquid–vapour and solid–vapour equilibria, saturated solutions, Henry’s law, NCERT Table 6.1 and the general characteristics of Section 6.1.5, with the NH_₄Cl slip corrected.

Reversible reactions, how equilibrium is reached from either side, the deuterium experiment that proves it is dynamic, and NCERT’s two-cylinder activity explained.

Law of mass action, the H_₂ + I_₂ ratio test of NCERT Table 6.3, writing Kc for any reaction, and reversing or multiplying equations, with NCERT Problems 6.1 and 6.2.

Homogeneous equilibria, Kp for gases, Kp = Kc(RT)^Δn and units of K, with NCERT Problems 6.3–6.5 and the Problem 6.5 slip corrected.

Heterogeneous equilibria, why pure solids and liquids are left out of K, CaCO_₃ and CO_₂ at 1100 K, and NCERT Problem 6.6 with its two slips corrected.

Predicting the extent and direction of a reaction from K and Q, and the five-step table method for equilibrium concentrations, with NCERT Problems 6.7–6.9.

ΔG = ΔG⊖ + RT ln Q, ΔG⊖ = −RT ln K and the direction of reaction, with NCERT Problems 6.10 and 6.11 worked.

Le Chatelier’s principle with concentration, pressure, inert gas, temperature and catalyst, NCERT’s Fe(SCN)^²⁺ and NO_₂ experiments, and the Haber and contact processes.

Electrolytes and non-electrolytes, strong and weak electrolytes, ionic equilibrium, why water ionises salts (dielectric constant 80, hydration) and the hydrated proton.

Arrhenius, Brönsted–Lowry and Lewis concepts of acids and bases, conjugate pairs and amphiprotic water, with NCERT Problems 6.12–6.15 worked.

Kw, pH, Ka and Kb, Ka × Kb = Kw, polybasic acids, acid strength, common ion effect and hydrolysis of salts, with NCERT Problems 6.16–6.25 worked.

Buffer solutions, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation for acidic and basic buffers, designing a buffer of given pH, and NCERT’s Eq. 6.42 slip corrected.

Solubility categories, Ksp and molar solubility, Qsp and precipitation, common ion and pH effects, with NCERT Problems 6.26–6.28 and the Problem 6.27 slip corrected.

Oxidation and reduction as gain or loss of oxygen, hydrogen, electronegative and electropositive elements, why they occur together, and NCERT Problem 7.1 solved.

Oxidation and reduction as loss and gain of electrons, half reactions, oxidising and reducing agents, and the competitive reactions of Zn, Cu, Ag, Co and Ni (NCERT 7.2.1).

Rules for oxidation numbers, Stock notation, the four types of redox reactions, fractional values, balancing by both methods, redox titrations and NCERT Problems 7.3–7.10.

Redox couples, the Daniell cell with its salt bridge, electrode and standard electrode potentials, reading NCERT Table 7.1, and NCERT Exercises 7.26–7.30.

What organic chemistry studies, catenation, the vital force theory and its end with Wöhler’s urea (1828), Kolbe’s acetic acid (1845) and Berthelot’s methane (1856).

Shapes from sp^³, sp^² and sp hybridisation, the effect of s character on bonds and electronegativity, the features of π bonds, and NCERT Problems 8.1–8.3.

Complete, condensed and bond-line structural formulas, rings as polygons, wedge-and-dash 3-D drawings and molecular models, with NCERT Problems 8.4–8.6.

Acyclic and cyclic compounds, alicyclic (homocyclic and heterocyclic) and aromatic (benzenoid, non-benzenoid, heterocyclic) rings, functional groups and homologous series.

Common and IUPAC names, straight and branched alkanes and alkyl groups, naming rules, rings, functional groups with their priority, and substituted benzenes, with NCERT Problems 8.7–8.10.

Structural isomerism (chain, position, functional group, metamerism) with NCERT’s examples, and stereoisomerism introduced through geometrical and optical isomers.

Bond fission, carbocations, carbanions and free radicals, nucleophiles and electrophiles, curved arrows, inductive, resonance, electromeric and hyperconjugation effects, reaction types.

Sublimation, crystallisation, simple, fractional, reduced-pressure and steam distillation, differential extraction, and column, thin layer and paper chromatography with Rf.

Detecting carbon and hydrogen with copper(II) oxide, Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen, sulphur and halogens, the thiocyanate case, and the test for phosphorus.

Estimating carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen by the Dumas and Kjeldahl methods, halogens by Carius, sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen, with NCERT Problems 8.20–8.24.

Hydrocarbons as fuels and raw materials, and their classes: saturated (alkanes, cycloalkanes), unsaturated (alkenes, alkynes) and aromatic, with general formulas.

Alkanes: isomerism and naming, preparation (hydrogenation, Wurtz, decarboxylation, Kolbe), properties, halogenation, combustion and the conformations of ethane.

Alkenes: the C=C bond, naming, structural and geometrical isomerism, preparation, physical properties, addition reactions, oxidation, ozonolysis and polymerisation.

Alkynes: naming and isomerism, the triple bond, preparation from calcium carbide and vicinal dihalides, acidity, additions and polymerisation.

Benzene: structure, resonance and Hückel’s rule, preparation, electrophilic substitution with its mechanism, addition, combustion and the directive influence of groups.

Carcinogenicity and toxicity: benzene and polynuclear hydrocarbons, how they form by incomplete combustion, how they damage DNA, and NCERT’s five examples.

What a set is, the standard sets N, Z, Q and R, membership, and writing sets in roster and set-builder form, with NCERT Exercise 1.1 worked.

The empty (null, void) set, its symbols ϕ and { }, NCERT’s four examples, and why ϕ, {0} and {ϕ} are different.

Finite and infinite sets, the number of elements n(S), writing infinite sets with dots, and NCERT Example 6 and Exercise 1.2 Q2–Q3 worked.

Equal sets, why order and repetition do not matter, and NCERT Examples 7 and 8 and Exercise 1.2 Q4–Q6 worked in roster form.

Subsets, proper subsets and supersets, ∈ against ⊂, the subsets N, Z, Q, R of the real numbers, and intervals, with NCERT Exercise 1.3 Q1–Q6 worked.

The universal set as the background set of a problem, how to choose one, and NCERT Exercise 1.3 Q7–Q8 worked.

Venn diagrams: the universal set as a rectangle, subsets as circles, NCERT’s Illustrations 1 and 2, and how to place every element once.

Union, intersection and difference of sets with Venn diagrams, disjoint sets, the algebraic laws, and NCERT Examples 12–19 and at least one part of every Exercise 1.4 question worked.

The complement A′ of a set, its properties, De Morgan’s laws with Venn diagrams, and NCERT Examples 20–22 and Exercise 1.5 worked, with Venn diagrams for Q5.

Ordered pairs and their equality, the Cartesian product A × B, n(A × B) = pq, ordered triplets and R × R, with NCERT Examples 1–6 and Exercise 2.1 Q1–Q10 worked.

Relations as subsets of A × B, arrow diagrams, domain, codomain and range, the 2 to the power pq count, with NCERT Examples 7–9 and 19 and Exercise 2.2 Q1–Q9 worked.

Functions, domain, codomain and range, the seven standard graphs of NCERT 2.4.1, the algebra of real functions, with Exercise 2.3 and most of the Miscellaneous Exercise worked.

Angles as rotation, degree and radian measure, l = rθ, radians as real numbers and degree–radian conversion, with NCERT Examples 1–5 and Exercise 3.1 Q1–Q7 worked.

Sine and cosine on the unit circle, the other four functions, signs, domains, ranges and graphs, with NCERT Examples 6–9 worked and every Exercise 3.2 question solved.

Sum and difference formulas with NCERT’s unit-circle proof, allied angles, tan and cot of sums, double, triple and half angles, and sum-to-product identities, with worked examples.

Why complex numbers are needed, the imaginary unit i, real and imaginary parts, and equality of complex numbers, with NCERT Example 1 worked.

Adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing complex numbers, powers of i, square roots of negative numbers and identities, with NCERT Examples 2–4 and Exercise 4.1 Q1–Q10 solved.

Modulus and conjugate of a complex number, z times its conjugate, the multiplicative inverse and the properties, with NCERT Examples 5–7 and Exercise 4.1 Q11–Q14 solved.

Plotting complex numbers in the Argand plane, the real and imaginary axes, the modulus as a distance and the conjugate as a mirror image, after NCERT Figs 4.1–4.3.

What an inequality is, NCERT’s Ravi and Reshma situations, strict and slack inequalities, numerical, literal and double inequalities, and linear inequalities in one and two variables.

Solutions and solution sets, NCERT’s two rules, solving step by step, number-line graphs and systems, with NCERT Examples 1–13 and a selection of Exercise 5.1 and the Miscellaneous Exercise solved.

The multiplication principle with a tree diagram, filling places with and without repetition, and adding separate cases, with NCERT Examples 1–4 and Exercise 6.1 Q1–Q6 solved.

Permutations, factorials, the nPr formula, repetition and alike objects, with NCERT Examples 6, 8, 9, 11–16 and 22–24 and all of Exercises 6.2 and 6.3 solved.

Combinations as selections, the link with permutations, the formula for nCr and its properties, with NCERT Examples 17–21, all of Exercise 6.4 and part of the Miscellaneous Exercise solved.

The (a + b)^ⁿ formula, Pascal’s triangle, binomial coefficients, special cases and their sums, with solved examples.

Sequences, terms and the general term, finite and infinite sequences, formulas and recurrences such as Fibonacci, with NCERT Examples 1–2, Exercise 8.1 Q1–Q10 and Q14, and the terms of Q12 solved.

The series of a sequence, finite and infinite series, the sum of a series and sigma notation, with NCERT Example 3 and Exercise 8.1 Q11–Q13 solved.

G.P.s, the nth term ar^ⁿ⁻¹, the sum of n terms, the geometric mean and inserting G.M.s, with NCERT Examples 4–12, 21 Exercise 8.2 questions and Misc Q1–Q3, Q5, Q11, Q15 and Q17 solved.

The arithmetic and geometric means of two numbers, the proof that A.M. ≥ G.M. with equality only for equal numbers, NCERT Example 13, Exercise 8.2 Q28, Q29, Q32 and Misc Q10 solved.

The recap formulas of NCERT Section 9.1: distance, section, mid-point and area of a triangle, collinear points, with NCERT Exercise 9.1 Q1–Q4 solved.

Inclination and slope, slope from two points, parallel and perpendicular lines, the angle between two lines, with NCERT Examples 1–3 and Exercise 9.1 Q5–Q11 solved.

Horizontal and vertical lines, point-slope, two-point, slope-intercept and intercept forms and Ax + By + C = 0, with NCERT Examples 4–8 and Exercise 9.2 solved.

The formula |Ax_₁ + By_₁ + C|/√(A^² + B^²) and NCERT’s area proof, the distance between parallel lines, NCERT Examples 9–10 and Exercise 9.3 distance questions solved.

The double cone, its vertex, axis, generators and nappes, the circle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola as plane sections, and the degenerate sections, as in NCERT Section 10.2.

The circle as a locus, (x − h)^² + (y − k)^² = r^², finding the centre and radius by completing squares, with NCERT Examples 1–4 and Exercise 10.1 solved.

Focus and directrix, the four standard equations y^² = ±4ax and x^² = ±4ay, the latus rectum 4a, with NCERT Examples 5–8 and all of Exercise 10.2 solved.

Foci, axes and vertices, a^² = b^² + c^², eccentricity c/a, the standard equations and the latus rectum 2b^²/a, with NCERT Examples 9–13 and all of Exercise 10.3 solved.

Foci, transverse and conjugate axes, c^² = a^² + b^², eccentricity c/a > 1, the standard equations and the latus rectum 2b^²/a, with NCERT Examples 14–16 and all of Exercise 10.4.

NCERT Section 11.2: three mutually perpendicular axes, the XY-, YZ- and ZX-planes and the eight octants with their signs (Table 11.1), with Example 2 and Exercise 11.1 Q3 and Q4 (i), (iii) solved.

NCERT Section 11.3: the triplet (x, y, z) from perpendiculars PM and ML, the box through P, points on the axes and planes, with Example 1 and Exercise 11.1 Q1, Q2 and Q4 (ii) solved.

NCERT Section 11.4: the distance formula from the box with diagonal PQ, collinear points and right triangles, with Examples 3–8, Exercise 11.2 and Miscellaneous Q4 solved.

NCERT Section 12.2: average velocities of s = 4.9t^² closing in on t = 2 (Tables 12.1–12.3), the exact 19.6 m/s by algebra, and the tangent as the limit of chords.

NCERT Section 12.3: left- and right-hand limits, the algebra of limits, polynomial and rational limits and Theorem 2, with Examples 1–3 and the non-trigonometric Exercise 12.1 solved.

NCERT Section 12.4: the sandwich theorem, cos x < (sin x)/x < 1 from areas in the unit circle, Theorem 5, Example 4 and the trigonometric Exercise 12.1 questions solved.

NCERT Section 12.5: the derivative from first principle, the slope of the tangent, the sum, product and quotient rules, x^ⁿ, sin x, cos x and tan x; Exercise 12.2 and the Miscellaneous Exercise solved.

NCERT Section 13.1: the mean and median recalled, the median of grouped data from Section 13.4.2, and the two batsmen with the same average but different spread.

NCERT Section 13.2: the four measures (range, quartile deviation, mean deviation, standard deviation), why signed deviations cancel, and the batsmen compared on each measure.

NCERT Section 13.3: range = maximum − minimum, the two batsmen compared, and why the range alone does not measure spread about a centre.

NCERT Section 13.4: mean deviation about the mean and the median for lists, discrete and continuous frequency tables, step deviations and its limitations.

NCERT Section 13.5: variance and standard deviation for lists, discrete and continuous frequency tables, the short-cut method, and the Miscellaneous Examples.

NCERT Section 14.1: events as subsets of the sample space, their types, the algebra of events, and mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.

NCERT Section 14.2: the three axioms, probability of an event, equally likely outcomes, P(A or B) and P(not A), with the Miscellaneous Examples.

NCERT Section 1.1: biodiversity, identification and nomenclature, ICBN and ICZN, the rules of binomial nomenclature, classification, taxa, taxonomy and systematics.

NCERT Section 1.2: the taxonomic hierarchy from species to kingdom, each category with NCERT’s examples, and Table 1.1 for man, housefly, mango and wheat.

NCERT Section 2.1: bacterial shapes, autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria, archaebacteria and eubacteria, cyanobacteria, reproduction and mycoplasmas.

NCERT Section 2.2: features of protists; the five groups (chrysophytes, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, slime moulds, protozoans); the four groups of protozoans.

NCERT Section 2.3: hyphae and mycelium, nutrition, the sexual cycle with plasmogamy, karyogamy and the dikaryon, and the four classes of fungi.

NCERT Section 2.4: the features of plants, partially heterotrophic plants, the groups of Plantae and alternation of generations, with Chapter 3’s facts on the dominant phase.

NCERT Section 2.5: the features of animals, holozoic nutrition and food reserves, growth, coordination and locomotion, and sexual reproduction.

NCERT Section 2.6: discovery, structure and genetic material of viruses, viral diseases, viroids, prions, and lichens with their phycobiont and mycobiont.

NCERT Section 3.1: features, reproduction and uses of algae, the three classes with Table 3.1, and the chapter’s opening on artificial, natural and phylogenetic systems.

NCERT Section 3.2: the bryophyte body, sex organs, the dependent sporophyte, importance, and liverworts and mosses with their reproduction and examples.

NCERT Section 3.3: the vascular sporophyte, sporophylls and strobili, the prothallus and fertilisation, homospory and heterospory, and the four classes.

NCERT Section 3.4: naked ovules and seeds, roots, stems and leaves, male and female strobili, the ovule and female gametophyte, pollination and fertilisation.

NCERT Section 3.5: flowers and enclosed seeds, size range and uses, dicotyledons and monocotyledons, and the chapter exercises on content no longer in the book.

NCERT Section 4.1: levels of organisation, digestive and circulatory patterns, symmetry, germ layers, coelom, segmentation and notochord.

NCERT Section 4.2: the eleven phyla from Porifera to Chordata, chordates against non-chordates, the three subphyla and the seven vertebrate classes, with examples.

NCERT Section 5.1: tap, fibrous and adventitious roots, the functions of the root system, and the four regions of the root tip.

NCERT Section 5.2: the stem from the plumule, nodes, internodes, terminal and axillary buds, the stem’s functions, and how stems differ from roots.

NCERT Section 5.3: parts of a leaf, reticulate and parallel venation, simple and compound leaves, and alternate, opposite and whorled phyllotaxy.

NCERT Section 5.4: the flower as a modified shoot, and racemose and cymose inflorescences with acropetal and basipetal order.

NCERT Section 5.5: symmetry, ovary position, calyx, corolla and aestivation, androecium, and the gynoecium with its types of placentation.

NCERT Section 5.6: the fruit as a ripened ovary, parthenocarpy, the pericarp’s three layers, and mango and coconut as drupes.

NCERT Section 5.7: seed coat and embryo, the dicot seed with hilum and micropyle, endospermic seeds, and the maize seed with scutellum and sheaths.

NCERT Section 5.8: the order of a plant description, the floral formula and its symbols, and the floral diagram, with mustard as NCERT’s example.

NCERT Section 5.9: Solanaceae described in the standard order, with its floral formula, floral diagram and economic importance; answers Exercise Q6.

NCERT Section 6.1: the epidermal, ground and vascular tissue systems, the stomatal apparatus, and radial, conjoint, open and closed bundles.

NCERT Section 6.2: transverse sections of dicot and monocot roots and stems, dorsiventral and isobilateral leaves, and bulliform cells.

NCERT Section 7.1: from tissues to organs and organ systems, division of labour, and what morphology and anatomy mean for animals.

NCERT Section 7.2: the frog’s morphology and anatomy, from its digestive and respiratory systems to circulation, excretion, nerves, sense organs and reproduction.

NCERT Section 8.1: why the cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of life, who first saw a live cell, and who discovered the nucleus.

NCERT Section 8.2: Schleiden and Schwann’s cell theory, what it missed, Virchow’s ‘omnis cellula e cellula’, and the two tenets today.

NCERT Section 8.3: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, cytoplasm, membrane-bound organelles and ribosomes, and the sizes and shapes of cells.

NCERT Section 8.4: genomic DNA and plasmids, the cell envelope, Gram staining, mesosomes, flagella, pili and fimbriae, 70S ribosomes and inclusion bodies.

NCERT Section 8.5: plant and animal cells, the membrane and wall, endomembrane system, mitochondria, plastids, ribosomes, cilia, centrioles, nucleus.

NCERT Section 9.1: the acid-soluble pool and acid-insoluble fraction, ash, elements in living matter, amino acids, lipids, nucleosides and nucleotides.

NCERT Section 9.2: primary metabolites with known roles, secondary metabolites of plants, fungi and microbes, and the classes in NCERT Table 9.3.

NCERT Section 9.3: micromolecules and macromolecules, why lipids come down in the acid-insoluble fraction, and the average composition of cells (Table 9.4).

NCERT Section 9.4: proteins as heteropolymers of amino acids (20 types exist), essential and non-essential amino acids, and protein functions (Table 9.5).

NCERT Section 9.5: cellulose, starch, glycogen and inulin, reducing and non-reducing ends, the starch-iodine test, and chitin.

NCERT Section 9.6: nucleotides of base, sugar and phosphate, purines and pyrimidines, and DNA and RNA by their sugar.

NCERT Section 9.7: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins, with haemoglobin as the quaternary example.

NCERT Section 9.8: active site, reaction rates, activation energy, the catalytic cycle, factors and inhibition, the six classes and co-factors.

NCERT Section 10.1: interphase and M phase, the G1, S and G2 phases, DNA content against chromosome number, and the quiescent stage G0.

NCERT Section 10.2: mitosis as equational division, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, and cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.

NCERT Section 10.3: identical diploid daughter cells, growth, the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, cell repair, and growth from meristems.

NCERT Section 10.4: key features of meiosis, the five stages of prophase I, the rest of meiosis I, interkinesis and meiosis II.

NCERT Section 10.5: meiosis conserves the chromosome number across generations and increases genetic variability for evolution.

NCERT Section 11.1: photosynthesis as autotrophic nutrition, its importance, and the starch tests showing chlorophyll, light and CO_₂ are needed.

NCERT Section 11.2: Priestley, Ingenhousz, Sachs, Engelmann and van Niel, the empirical and overall equations, and why 12 H_₂O; NCERT’s Sachs date and isotope wording corrected.

NCERT Section 11.3: green parts, mesophyll chloroplasts and their alignment, the membrane system and stroma, and light against dark (carbon) reactions.

NCERT Section 11.4: the four leaf pigments by paper chromatography, absorption and action spectra, chlorophyll a as the chief pigment, and accessory pigments.

NCERT Section 11.5: the photochemical phase, light harvesting complexes and the antenna, and the reaction centres P700 (PS I) and P680 (PS II).

NCERT Section 11.6: the Z scheme, splitting of water, cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation, chemiosmosis and ATP synthase; answers Exercise 9(b).

NCERT Section 11.7: the biosynthetic phase, PGA and OAA, RuBP as the CO_₂ acceptor, the three stages of the Calvin cycle, and 18 ATP and 12 NADPH per glucose.

NCERT Section 11.8: Kranz anatomy, PEPcase in mesophyll cells, the Hatch and Slack pathway, and the Calvin cycle in bundle sheath cells; answers Exercises 1–3 and 9(a), 9(c).

NCERT Section 11.9: RuBisCO as carboxylase and oxygenase, photorespiration in C_₃ plants, its absence in C_₄ plants, and Table 11.1 filled in; answers Exercise 4.

NCERT Section 11.10: internal and external factors, Blackman’s law, light, CO_₂, temperature and water; answers Exercises 5–8, with Figure 11.10.

NCERT Chapter 12 introduction and Section 12.1: respiration and respiratory substrates, ATP as energy currency, stomata and lenticels, and aerobic and anaerobic organisms.

NCERT Section 12.2: the EMP pathway in the cytoplasm, the ten steps, where ATP and NADH are used and made, net 2 ATP, and the fates of pyruvic acid.

NCERT Section 12.3: alcoholic fermentation in yeast, lactic acid fermentation in bacteria and muscle, the enzymes, NADH reoxidation, and the small energy yield.

NCERT Section 12.4: pyruvate to acetyl CoA, the TCA cycle, the electron transport system and oxidative phosphorylation, and ATP synthase with F_₀ and F_₁.

NCERT Section 12.5: the assumptions behind the ATP count, the net gain of 38 ATP per glucose, and fermentation compared with aerobic respiration.

NCERT Section 12.6: glucose as the favoured substrate, where fats and proteins enter the respiratory pathway, and why it is amphibolic, not just catabolic.

NCERT Section 12.7: RQ as CO_₂ evolved over O_₂ consumed, RQ 1 for carbohydrates, 0.7 for fats (tripalmitin) and about 0.9 for proteins, and mixed substrates.

NCERT Section 13.1: indeterminate growth, primary and secondary growth, measuring growth, phases, arithmetic and geometric growth, sigmoid curve, conditions.

NCERT Section 13.2: differentiation and the tracheary element, dedifferentiation into interfascicular and cork cambium, redifferentiation, and open differentiation.

NCERT Section 13.3: development as growth plus differentiation, the developmental sequence of a plant cell, plasticity and heterophylly, intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

NCERT Section 13.4: what PGRs are, promoters and inhibitors, how each was discovered, and the effects of auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and ABA.

NCERT Section 14.1: respiratory organs across animals, the human respiratory system from nostrils to alveoli, conducting and exchange parts, and the steps of respiration.

NCERT Section 14.2: inspiration and expiration by pressure gradients, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, and respiratory volumes and capacities.

NCERT Section 14.3: diffusion at the alveoli and tissues, partial pressures of O_₂ and CO_₂ (Table 14.1), solubility, and the three-layered diffusion membrane.

NCERT Section 14.4: transport of O_₂ as oxyhaemoglobin, the oxygen dissociation curve, CO_₂ as bicarbonate and carbamino-haemoglobin, and carbonic anhydrase.

NCERT Section 14.5: the respiratory rhythm centre in the medulla, the pneumotaxic centre in the pons, the chemosensitive area and aortic and carotid receptors.

NCERT Section 14.6: asthma (inflamed bronchi and bronchioles), emphysema (damaged alveolar walls, smoking) and occupational disorders (dust, fibrosis, masks).

NCERT Section 15.1: plasma and its proteins, RBCs, WBCs and platelets, ABO and Rh blood groups, erythroblastosis foetalis, and coagulation of blood.

NCERT Section 15.2: how interstitial (tissue) fluid forms, the lymphatic system, and the functions of lymph, including fat absorption by lacteals.

NCERT Section 15.3: open and closed circulation, vertebrate hearts, the human heart and nodal tissue, the cardiac cycle, cardiac output, heart sounds and the ECG.

NCERT Section 15.4: the three layers of arteries and veins, the pulmonary and systemic circulations, and the hepatic portal and coronary systems.

NCERT Section 15.5: why the heart is myogenic, how a medulla centre moderates it through sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, and the adrenal medullary hormones.

NCERT Section 15.6: hypertension and the 120/80 and 140/90 readings, coronary artery disease, angina pectoris, and heart failure versus cardiac arrest and heart attack.

NCERT Section 16.1: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra; the kidney in section; the nephron and its parts; cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons; vasa recta.

NCERT Section 16.2: glomerular filtration through three layers, ultrafiltration, GFR of 125 mL a minute, the JGA and renin, reabsorption of 99 per cent, and secretion.

NCERT Section 16.3: what the PCT, the two limbs of Henle’s loop, the DCT and the collecting duct reabsorb and secrete, and how each keeps pH and ionic balance.

NCERT Section 16.4: counter currents in Henle’s loop and the vasa recta, the medullary gradient from 300 to 1200 mOsmol per litre, and the roles of NaCl and urea.

NCERT Section 16.5: osmoreceptors and ADH, the renin–angiotensin mechanism, aldosterone, and ANF as its check, with diabetes insipidus from Chapter 19.

NCERT Section 16.6: the micturition reflex, the volume, colour, pH and urea content of urine, and glycosuria and ketonuria as signs of diabetes mellitus.

NCERT Section 16.7: how the lungs, the liver (through bile) and the skin (sweat and sebaceous glands) help remove wastes, with saliva as a minor route.

NCERT Section 16.8: uraemia and kidney failure, haemodialysis with the artificial kidney, kidney transplantation, renal calculi and glomerulonephritis.

NCERT Chapter 17 introduction and Section 17.1: movement and locomotion, and the amoeboid, ciliary and muscular movements of human cells, with flagellar movement from the start of Section 17.2.

NCERT Section 17.2: the three muscle types, the skeletal muscle fibre, the sarcomere and its bands, actin and myosin, the steps of contraction, and red and white fibres.

NCERT Section 17.3: bone and cartilage, the 80 bones of the axial skeleton (skull, vertebrae, sternum, ribs) and the limbs and girdles of the appendicular skeleton.

NCERT Section 17.4: joints as fulcrums, and fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints, with the five kinds of synovial joint and their examples.

NCERT Section 17.5: myasthenia gravis, muscular dystrophy, tetany, arthritis, osteoporosis and gout, with what causes each.

NCERT Chapter 18 opening and Section 18.1: coordination, the neural and endocrine systems, neurons, and the neural systems of cnidarians, insects and vertebrates.

NCERT Section 18.2: the CNS and PNS, afferent and efferent fibres, somatic and autonomic systems, sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, and the visceral nervous system.

NCERT Section 18.3: neuron structure, multipolar, bipolar and unipolar neurons, myelinated fibres, resting and action potentials, and electrical and chemical synapses.

NCERT Section 18.4: functions of the brain, the meninges, the forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system), midbrain, hindbrain and brain stem.

NCERT Chapter 19 opening and Section 19.1: why hormones are needed alongside nerves, ductless glands, and the classical and current definitions of a hormone.

NCERT Section 19.2: the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, testis and ovary, with their hormones and disorders.

NCERT Section 19.3: atrial natriuretic factor from the heart, erythropoietin from the kidney, and gastrin, secretin, CCK and GIP from the gastrointestinal tract.

NCERT Section 19.4: hormone receptors, the four chemical groups of hormones, second messengers, and hormones that act on genes, with Exercise 8 on FSH.