Biology notes for Class 11, Class 12 and NEET

Growth, reproduction, metabolism, cells and consciousness, which of them define life, living vs non-living, with solved examples.

13 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Binomial nomenclature for Class 11 Biology and NEET: its rules with examples, biodiversity, ICBN and ICZN, taxa, and taxonomy vs systematics.

NCERT Section 1.1 13 min read 6 solved examples 13 practice questions

Taxonomic hierarchy for Class 11 Biology and NEET: the seven taxonomic categories from species to kingdom, NCERT examples, Table 1.1 and a ladder diagram.

NCERT Section 1.2 11 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Whittaker’s criteria, NCERT Table 2.1 compared, why two kingdoms failed, merits and demerits, and three domains.

10 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Kingdom Monera for Class 11 Biology and NEET: characteristics, bacterial shapes with a diagram, archaebacteria vs eubacteria, cyanobacteria and mycoplasma.

NCERT Section 2.1 9 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Kingdom Protista for Class 11 Biology and NEET: diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids with a labelled diagram, slime moulds and the four protozoan groups.

NCERT Section 2.2 11 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Kingdom Fungi for Class 11 Biology and NEET: hyphae, nutrition, sexual cycle and dikaryon, and phycomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, deuteromycetes.

NCERT Section 2.3 10 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Kingdom Plantae for Class 11 Biology and NEET: plant features, partial heterotrophs, the five plant groups and alternation of generations with a diagram.

NCERT Section 2.4 7 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Characteristics of animals, holozoic nutrition, glycogen and fat reserves, and how animals differ from plants.

NCERT Section 2.5 7 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Virus structure with labelled TMV and bacteriophage diagrams, viroids vs prions, and lichens.

NCERT Section 2.6 11 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Algae for Class 11 Biology and NEET: features, examples, isogamy to oogamy, uses, and the green, brown and red algae compared, with labelled diagrams.

NCERT Section 3.1 16 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Bryophytes for Class 11 Biology and NEET: features, the moss life cycle, antheridia and archegonia, liverworts vs mosses, examples and uses, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 3.2 12 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Pteridophytes for Class 11 Biology and NEET: features, the fern life cycle, the prothallus, heterospory, and the four classes, with examples and diagrams.

NCERT Section 3.3 10 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Gymnosperms for Class 11 Biology and NEET: naked seeds, coralloid roots, mycorrhiza, male and female cones, fertilisation, and gymnosperms vs angiosperms.

NCERT Section 3.4 12 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Flowers and fruits, the size range and uses, and dicotyledons vs monocotyledons with examples and a labelled diagram.

NCERT Section 3.5 9 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Levels of organisation, symmetry, germ layers, coelom, segmentation and notochord, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 4.1 12 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Phyla from Porifera to Chordata with examples, chordates vs non-chordates, the seven vertebrate classes.

NCERT Section 4.2 23 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

The root for Class 11 Biology and NEET: tap, fibrous and adventitious types of roots, root functions and the regions of the root tip, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 5.1 9 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Storage roots of carrot and sweet potato, prop roots of banyan, stilt roots of maize and the pneumatophores of mangroves.

8 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

The stem for Class 11 Biology and NEET: its origin from the plumule, nodes, internodes, terminal and axillary buds, functions, and stem versus root.

NCERT Section 5.2 7 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Underground storage stems, stem tendrils and thorns, phylloclades, and runners, stolons, offsets and suckers, with examples.

9 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Parts of a leaf for Class 11 Biology and NEET: leaf base, petiole and lamina, reticulate and parallel venation, simple and compound leaves, phyllotaxy.

NCERT Section 5.3 10 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Leaf tendrils of pea, spines of cacti, fleshy leaves of onion, phyllodes of Australian acacia, and insect-catching leaves.

7 min read 6 solved examples 12 practice questions

Types of inflorescence for Class 11 Biology and NEET: racemose and cymose, the flower as a modified shoot, acropetal and basipetal order, with a diagram.

NCERT Section 5.4 7 min read 5 solved examples 7 practice questions

Parts of a flower for Class 11 Biology and NEET: calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium, symmetry, ovary position, aestivation and placentation.

NCERT Section 5.5 13 min read 6 solved examples 14 practice questions

The fruit for Class 11 Biology and NEET: a ripened ovary, parthenocarpic fruits, epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp, mango and coconut drupes, false fruits.

NCERT Section 5.6 8 min read 6 solved examples 10 practice questions

Seed structure for Class 11 Biology and NEET: dicot and monocot seeds, seed coat, hilum, micropyle, endospermic seeds and maize, with labelled diagrams.

NCERT Section 5.7 9 min read 6 solved examples 10 practice questions

The symbols, fusion and adhesion, the order of a semi-technical description, and solved examples.

NCERT Section 5.8 9 min read 6 solved examples 10 practice questions

NCERT’s vegetative and floral characters, floral formula, floral diagram, examples and uses of the potato family.

NCERT Section 5.9 8 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Epicalyx, twisted petals, monadelphous stamens, one-lobed anthers, axile placentation, uses and the floral formula of hibiscus.

8 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Cruciform corolla, tetradynamous stamens, parietal placentation with a false septum, siliqua, formula and uses.

8 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Root nodules, traditional subfamilies, papilionaceous flowers, diadelphous stamens, pods and formulas.

9 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Capitulum with ray and disc florets, pappus, syngenesious stamens, inferior ovary, basal placentation and cypsela.

8 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Jointed culm, leaf sheath and ligule, spikelets with glumes, lemma, palea and lodicules, caryopsis, formula and uses.

10 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Apical, intercalary and lateral meristems; parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma; and the elements of xylem and phloem.

10 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Plant tissue systems for Class 11 Biology and NEET: epidermis, stomatal apparatus, root hairs and trichomes, ground tissue, and types of vascular bundles.

NCERT Section 6.1 10 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

The sections compared, dorsiventral and isobilateral leaves, and bulliform cells.

NCERT Section 6.2 12 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

The four types (epithelial, connective, muscle and neural), their kinds and functions, and cell junctions, with labelled diagrams.

12 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

Levels of organisation from cell to organism, division of labour, and morphology vs anatomy, with examples.

NCERT Section 7.1 8 min read 5 solved examples 8 practice questions

Sexual dimorphism and the organ systems, from digestion to reproduction, with labelled diagrams.

NCERT Section 7.2 15 min read 5 solved examples 10 practice questions

What is a cell, for Class 11 Biology and NEET: why it is the basic unit of life, unicellular vs multicellular, and who discovered the cell and the nucleus.

NCERT Section 8.1 7 min read 4 solved examples 7 practice questions

Cell theory for Class 11 Biology and NEET: who proposed it, Virchow’s omnis cellula e cellula, the modern cell theory and its exceptions.

NCERT Section 8.2 8 min read 4 solved examples 7 practice questions

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells for Class 11 Biology and NEET: how they differ, cytoplasm, membrane-bound organelles, and the smallest and largest cells.

NCERT Section 8.3 10 min read 5 solved examples 8 practice questions

Prokaryotic cell structure for Class 11 Biology and NEET, with a labelled diagram: cell envelope, Gram positive vs negative, mesosomes, plasmids, pili.

NCERT Section 8.4 13 min read 5 solved examples 8 practice questions

Eukaryotic cell organelles and their functions for Class 11 Biology and NEET: plant vs animal cell, fluid mosaic model, 70S vs 80S, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 8.5 24 min read 6 solved examples 10 practice questions

How to analyse chemical composition for Class 11 Biology and NEET: acid-soluble pool, ash, amino acids and zwitterions, lipids, nucleosides vs nucleotides.

NCERT Section 9.1 13 min read 6 solved examples 8 practice questions

Primary and secondary metabolites for Class 11 Biology and NEET: their difference, uses to people, and the classes and examples in NCERT Table 9.3.

NCERT Section 9.2 7 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Biomacromolecules for Class 11 Biology and NEET: micromolecules and macromolecules, why lipids are in the acid-insoluble fraction, and cell composition.

NCERT Section 9.3 7 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Proteins for Class 11 Biology and NEET: polypeptides as heteropolymers, essential and non-essential amino acids, protein functions, collagen and RuBisCO.

NCERT Section 9.4 7 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Polysaccharides for Class 11 Biology and NEET: starch vs cellulose vs glycogen, a glycogen diagram, inulin, reducing ends, the iodine test and chitin.

NCERT Section 9.5 8 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Nucleic acids for Class 11 Biology and NEET: nucleotides of base, sugar and phosphate, purines and pyrimidines, and how DNA and RNA differ by sugar.

NCERT Section 9.6 6 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Structure of proteins for Class 11 Biology and NEET: the four levels of protein structure, primary to quaternary, with a labelled diagram and haemoglobin.

NCERT Section 9.7 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Enzymes for Class 11 Biology and NEET: how they work, activation energy, factors affecting activity, competitive inhibition, six classes and co-factors.

NCERT Section 9.8 16 min read 5 solved examples 9 practice questions

Interphase (G1, S and G2) and M phase, DNA from 2C to 4C, durations, and the G0 phase, with a cell cycle diagram.

NCERT Section 10.1 12 min read 7 solved examples 8 practice questions

Why it is equational, the four stages with a diagram, the metaphase plate, and cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.

NCERT Section 10.2 10 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Growth, the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, cell repair, plant meristems, and mitosis in haploid cells.

NCERT Section 10.3 6 min read 4 solved examples 4 practice questions

Meiosis I and II, the stages of prophase I, crossing over and chiasmata, and the difference between mitosis and meiosis.

NCERT Section 10.4 11 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Why halving the chromosome number keeps it constant, and how meiosis increases genetic variation.

NCERT Section 10.5 6 min read 3 solved examples 4 practice questions

Autotrophic nutrition, starch tests for chlorophyll and light, and Moll’s half-leaf test for CO_₂.

NCERT Section 11.1 7 min read 3 solved examples 4 practice questions

Priestley’s bell jar, Ingenhousz, Sachs, Engelmann’s action spectrum, van Niel and why 12 H_₂O are used.

NCERT Section 11.2 14 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Mesophyll chloroplasts, a labelled chloroplast diagram, grana vs stroma, and light vs dark reactions.

NCERT Section 11.3 10 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Chlorophyll a vs b, carotenoids, accessory pigments, paper chromatography and absorption vs action spectra.

NCERT Section 11.4 10 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

The photochemical phase, light harvesting complex vs reaction centre, and PS I vs PS II (P700 and P680).

NCERT Section 11.5 8 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Water splitting at PS II, cyclic vs non-cyclic photophosphorylation and the chemiosmotic hypothesis, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 11.6 13 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

RuBP, RuBisCO, carboxylation, reduction and regeneration steps, and 18 ATP per glucose, with a diagram.

NCERT Section 11.7 11 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Kranz anatomy, PEPcase in the mesophyll, the Hatch and Slack pathway, why C_₄ plants are efficient, examples and diagrams.

NCERT Section 11.8 13 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Why RuBisCO binds O_₂, why it is wasteful, why C_₄ plants avoid it, and the difference between C_₃ and C_₄ plants.

NCERT Section 11.9 12 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Blackman’s law of limiting factors, light, CO_₂ (C_₃ vs C_₄), temperature and water, with graphs.

NCERT Section 11.10 13 min read 6 solved examples 6 practice questions

Definition, respiratory substrates, ATP as energy currency, stomata and lenticels.

NCERT Section 12.1 11 min read 6 solved examples 6 practice questions

The EMP pathway steps with a diagram, where ATP and NADH are used and made, the net gain of 2 ATP, and pyruvate’s fates.

NCERT Section 12.2 11 min read 5 solved examples 7 practice questions

Alcoholic fermentation in yeast, lactic acid fermentation in muscle, enzymes and net ATP.

NCERT Section 12.3 9 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

The link reaction, Krebs’ (TCA) cycle, electron transport chain and ATP synthase, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 12.4 15 min read 5 solved examples 9 practice questions

ATP from one glucose (NCERT’s net 38), its assumptions, and aerobic and anaerobic respiration compared.

NCERT Section 12.5 11 min read 5 solved examples 9 practice questions

How fats and proteins enter respiration, catabolism vs anabolism, and why the respiratory pathway is amphibolic.

NCERT Section 12.6 8 min read 4 solved examples 7 practice questions

The formula, RQ of carbohydrates and fats worked out, and RQ of proteins, organic acids and fermentation.

NCERT Section 12.7 9 min read 6 solved examples 8 practice questions

Conditions a seed needs, epigeal and hypogeal germination with examples and a diagram, dormancy, and how the seedling emerges.

12 min read 5 solved examples 7 practice questions

Phases of growth, arithmetic and geometric growth, a sigmoid growth curve diagram, growth rates and solved examples.

NCERT Section 13.1 15 min read 6 solved examples 8 practice questions

Definitions, tracheary elements, cork and interfascicular cambium.

NCERT Section 13.2 9 min read 5 solved examples 7 practice questions

Plant development for Class 11 Biology and NEET: the developmental sequence of a plant cell, plasticity and heterophylly, and the factors that control it.

NCERT Section 13.3 6 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene and ABA, their functions and uses, apical dominance and bolting.

NCERT Section 13.4 16 min read 5 solved examples 9 practice questions

Organs in animals, the airway to the alveoli with a labelled diagram, and breathing vs respiration.

NCERT Section 14.1 11 min read 5 solved examples 7 practice questions

Inspiration vs expiration, the diaphragm and intercostals, respiratory volumes and capacities, with examples.

NCERT Section 14.2 11 min read 6 solved examples 7 practice questions

Diffusion at the alveoli and tissues, pO_₂ and pCO_₂ from NCERT Table 14.1, and the three-layer diffusion membrane.

NCERT Section 14.3 9 min read 4 solved examples 7 practice questions

Oxyhaemoglobin, the oxygen dissociation curve and its shifts, the Bohr effect, bicarbonate, carbonic anhydrase.

NCERT Section 14.4 13 min read 5 solved examples 7 practice questions

Medulla, pons, CO_₂ and H^⁺ sensing, and the important response to low arterial oxygen.

NCERT Section 14.5 9 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Asthma vs emphysema, occupational disorders such as silicosis, and what each one damages.

NCERT Section 14.6 7 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Plasma and serum, RBC, WBC and platelet counts, ABO and Rh blood groups, and how blood clots.

NCERT Section 15.1 14 min read 6 solved examples 8 practice questions

Composition of lymph, how tissue fluid forms, the lymphatic system, functions of lymph, and lymph vs blood and plasma.

NCERT Section 15.2 7 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Open vs closed circulation, chambers and valves with a labelled diagram, the SAN, cardiac cycle, cardiac output and ECG.

NCERT Section 15.3 16 min read 7 solved examples 7 practice questions

Pulmonary and systemic circulation with a diagram, arteries vs veins, the hepatic portal and coronary systems.

NCERT Section 15.4 8 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Myogenic vs neurogenic heart, sympathetic and parasympathetic control, adrenal medullary hormones.

NCERT Section 15.5 10 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Hypertension (120/80, 140/90), coronary artery disease, angina vs heart attack, heart failure.

NCERT Section 15.6 11 min read 6 solved examples 6 practice questions

Ammonia, urea and uric acid, NCERT’s examples of each, and excretory organs from flame cells to kidneys.

11 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Structure of kidney and nephron with labelled diagrams, cortical vs juxtamedullary nephrons, and vasa recta.

NCERT Section 16.1 10 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Glomerular filtration, reabsorption and secretion, GFR of 125 mL a minute and the JGA, with diagrams and examples.

NCERT Section 16.2 11 min read 6 solved examples 6 practice questions

What the PCT, both limbs of Henle’s loop, the DCT and collecting duct reabsorb and secrete, with a diagram.

NCERT Section 16.3 8 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Henle’s loop and vasa recta, the 300 to 1200 mOsmol per litre gradient, NaCl and urea, with a diagram.

NCERT Section 16.4 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

ADH and osmoreceptors, renin–angiotensin, aldosterone, ANF and diabetes insipidus, with flow diagrams.

NCERT Section 16.5 12 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

The micturition reflex, composition of urine (1 to 1.5 litres a day, pH 6.0, 25–30 g of urea), glycosuria and ketonuria.

NCERT Section 16.6 7 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Role of other organs in excretion for Class 11 Biology and NEET: what the lungs, the liver through bile, and the sweat and sebaceous glands remove.

NCERT Section 16.7 6 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Uraemia, haemodialysis and artificial kidney, transplantation, renal calculi, glomerulonephritis.

NCERT Section 16.8 10 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

The difference between movement and locomotion, and amoeboid, ciliary, flagellar and muscular movement.

NCERT Section 17.1 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

a labelled sarcomere diagram, actin, myosin and troponin, the sliding filament theory, and red and white fibres.

NCERT Section 17.2 19 min read 7 solved examples 7 practice questions

Axial vs appendicular skeleton, 206 bones, skull, vertebrae, true, false and floating ribs, limbs and girdles.

NCERT Section 17.3 12 min read 5 solved examples 6 practice questions

Fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial, and ball and socket, hinge, pivot, gliding and saddle joints with examples.

NCERT Section 17.4 9 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Causes of myasthenia gravis, muscular dystrophy, tetany, arthritis, osteoporosis, gout.

NCERT Section 17.5 9 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Neural vs chemical coordination, neurons as its units, and the nervous systems of cnidarians, insects and vertebrates.

NCERT Section 18.1 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

CNS vs PNS, afferent vs efferent, somatic, autonomic and visceral systems, sympathetic vs parasympathetic.

NCERT Section 18.2 9 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Structure with a labelled diagram, types, myelinated fibres, resting and action potentials, and how a synapse works.

NCERT Section 18.3 16 min read 8 solved examples 8 practice questions

Forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain, what each part does, the meninges and the brain stem, with labelled diagrams.

NCERT Section 18.4 13 min read 5 solved examples 7 practice questions

Why endocrine glands are ductless, exocrine vs endocrine glands, and NCERT’s two hormone definitions.

NCERT Section 19.1 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Endocrine glands and their hormones, from hypothalamus to gonads, their disorders and a labelled diagram.

NCERT Section 19.2 22 min read 8 solved examples 7 practice questions

Gastrin, secretin, CCK and GIP and their targets, plus the heart’s ANF and the kidney’s erythropoietin.

NCERT Section 19.3 8 min read 4 solved examples 6 practice questions

Membrane and intracellular receptors, peptide vs steroid hormones, second messengers, with a diagram.

NCERT Section 19.4 9 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Flower structure for Class 12 Biology and NEET: a labelled L.S. diagram, where pollen and embryo sacs form, and sexual reproduction in flowering plants.

NCERT Section 1.1 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Pre-fertilisation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: anther, pollen, ovule, embryo sac diagrams, pollination, outbreeding devices, pollen–pistil interaction.

NCERT Section 1.2 31 min read 6 solved examples 10 practice questions

Double fertilisation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: syngamy and triple fusion with a diagram, zygote and PEN ploidy, and solved chromosome counts.

NCERT Section 1.3 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Post-fertilisation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: endosperm, embryo, dicot and grass embryos, albuminous seeds, perisperm, false fruits and parthenocarpy.

NCERT Section 1.4 17 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

Apomixis and polyembryony for Class 12 Biology and NEET: seeds without fertilisation, nucellar embryos in citrus and mango, and apomixis in hybrid seeds.

NCERT Section 1.5 9 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Male reproductive system for Class 12 Biology and NEET: labelled diagram, testes, seminiferous tubules, Sertoli and Leydig cells, ducts and glands.

NCERT Section 2.1 10 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Female reproductive system for Class 12 Biology and NEET: labelled diagram, ovaries, fallopian tube parts, layers of the uterus and the mammary glands.

NCERT Section 2.2 10 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Gametogenesis for Class 12 Biology and NEET: spermatogenesis, spermiogenesis, hormones, sperm structure, oogenesis and follicles, with labelled diagrams.

NCERT Section 2.3 15 min read 4 solved examples 9 practice questions

Menstrual cycle for Class 12 Biology and NEET: menarche, menopause, the four phases with a hormone graph, the LH surge, the corpus luteum and hygiene.

NCERT Section 2.4 11 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Fertilisation and implantation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: how a sperm fertilises the ovum, the sex of the baby, morula and blastocyst, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 2.5 13 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

Pregnancy and embryonic development for Class 12 Biology and NEET: placenta formation, hCG and other hormones, germ layers, monthly growth, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 2.6 10 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Parturition and lactation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: gestation period, foetal ejection reflex, oxytocin, colostrum and milk hormones, with a diagram.

NCERT Section 2.7 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Reproductive health for Class 12 Biology and NEET: WHO’s definition, family planning and RCH programmes, sex education, amniocentesis and its ban.

NCERT Section 3.1 10 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Contraceptive methods for Class 12 Biology and NEET: population growth, natural and barrier methods, IUDs like Copper T, pills, vasectomy and tubectomy.

NCERT Section 3.2 14 min read 4 solved examples 10 practice questions

Medical termination of pregnancy for Class 12 Biology and NEET: why MTP is done, the MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021, first-trimester safety, female foeticide.

NCERT Section 3.3 11 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Sexually transmitted infections for Class 12 Biology and NEET: common STIs, spread of hepatitis-B and HIV, which are curable, complications and prevention.

NCERT Section 3.4 9 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Infertility for Class 12 Biology and NEET: causes, IVF with ZIFT and IUT, GIFT, ICSI, artificial insemination and IUI, and legal adoption.

NCERT Section 3.5 10 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Mendel’s experiments for Class 12 Biology and NEET: why he chose the pea, how a cross is made, true-breeding lines and the seven contrasting traits.

NCERT Section 4.1 8 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

Monohybrid cross for Class 12 Biology and NEET: 3 : 1 and 1 : 2 : 1 ratios, law of segregation, test cross, incomplete dominance, co-dominance, ABO.

NCERT Section 4.2 19 min read 4 solved examples 10 practice questions

Dihybrid cross for Class 12 Biology and NEET: the 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio, the law of independent assortment, chromosomal theory, linkage and recombination.

NCERT Section 4.3 16 min read 4 solved examples 9 practice questions

Polygenic inheritance for Class 12 Biology and NEET: polygenic traits with examples, human height, the additive skin-colour model and the environment.

NCERT Section 4.4 9 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Pleiotropy for Class 12 Biology and NEET: pleiotropic genes with several effects, the metabolic-pathway mechanism, phenylketonuria and the pea starch gene.

NCERT Section 4.5 8 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Sex determination for Class 12 Biology and NEET: XO, XY and ZW types, male and female heterogamety, humans, birds and the honey bee, with solved examples.

NCERT Section 4.6 12 min read 4 solved examples 7 practice questions

Mutation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: types of mutation, chromosomal aberrations, the sickle-cell point mutation, frame-shift mutations and mutagens.

NCERT Section 4.7 10 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Genetic disorders for Class 12 Biology and NEET: pedigree analysis, colour blindness, haemophilia, sickle-cell anaemia, thalassemia and Down’s syndrome.

NCERT Section 4.8 19 min read 4 solved examples 9 practice questions

Structure of DNA for Class 12 Biology and NEET: nucleotides and the double helix with diagrams, Chargaff’s rule, central dogma, nucleosomes, DNA packaging.

NCERT Section 5.1 15 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

Griffith experiment and the search for genetic material for Class 12 Biology and NEET: Avery’s work, Hershey–Chase and DNA vs RNA, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 5.2 13 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

RNA world hypothesis for Class 12 Biology and NEET: why RNA is thought to be the first genetic material, RNA as a catalyst (ribozymes) and DNA from RNA.

NCERT Section 5.3 7 min read 3 solved examples 6 practice questions

DNA replication for Class 12 Biology and NEET: semiconservative copying, the Meselson–Stahl and Taylor experiments, DNA polymerase, the fork and ligase.

NCERT Section 5.4 16 min read 4 solved examples 9 practice questions

Transcription for Class 12 Biology and NEET: transcription unit, template and coding strands, types of RNA, RNA polymerases, splicing, capping, tailing.

NCERT Section 5.5 15 min read 5 solved examples 9 practice questions

The genetic code for Class 12 Biology and NEET: the triplet codon table, start and stop codons, degeneracy, frameshift mutations and tRNA as adapter.

NCERT Section 5.6 14 min read 5 solved examples 8 practice questions

Translation in biology for Class 12 Biology and NEET: tRNA charging, the 23S rRNA ribozyme, UTRs and the steps of protein synthesis, with a diagram.

NCERT Section 5.7 10 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

Lac operon and regulation of gene expression for Class 12 Biology and NEET: levels of control, operator, repressor, induction by lactose and a diagram.

NCERT Section 5.8 11 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

The Human Genome Project for Class 12 Biology and NEET: why a mega project, its goals, ESTs and BAC/YAC cloning, Sanger sequencing and genome features.

NCERT Section 5.9 12 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

DNA fingerprinting for Class 12 Biology and NEET: satellite DNA, polymorphism, VNTR probes, the Southern blot steps, applications and a gel diagram.

NCERT Section 5.10 13 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

Origin of life for Class 12 Biology and NEET: early earth, panspermia, Pasteur, chemical evolution and the Miller–Urey experiment, with a labelled diagram.

NCERT Section 6.1 12 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Darwin’s theory of evolution for Class 12 Biology and NEET: special creation, Darwin’s voyage, reproductive fitness, natural selection and Wallace.

NCERT Section 6.2 7 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Evidences of evolution for Class 12 Biology and NEET: fossils, embryology, homologous and analogous organs, molecular evidence and industrial melanism.

NCERT Section 6.3 14 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Adaptive radiation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: Darwin’s finches of the Galapagos, Australian marsupials and convergent evolution with placental mammals.

NCERT Section 6.4 7 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Biological evolution for Class 12 Biology and NEET: natural selection and fitness, branching descent, Lamarckism against Darwinism and Malthus.

NCERT Section 6.5 9 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Mechanism of evolution for Class 12 Biology and NEET: Hugo de Vries’ mutation theory from the evening primrose, saltation and Darwinian variation compared.

NCERT Section 6.6 6 min read 2 solved examples 6 practice questions

Hardy–Weinberg principle for Class 12 Biology and NEET: p^² + 2pq + q^² = 1, five factors, gene flow, drift, types of natural selection, solved examples.

NCERT Section 6.7 15 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

Darwin plus Mendel, its architects, five factors, isolation and speciation, solved examples.

12 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Brief account of evolution for Class 12 Biology and NEET: NCERT’s dated timeline from the first cells to mammals, geological periods and solved examples.

NCERT Section 6.8 15 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

Human evolution for Class 12 Biology and NEET: NCERT’s early primates, australopithecines, brain sizes 650–1400 cc, Neanderthals and modern humans.

NCERT Section 6.9 11 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Health as complete physical, mental and social well-being, what affects it, and infectious and non-infectious diseases.

8 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Common diseases in humans for Class 12 Biology and NEET: typhoid, pneumonia, common cold, malaria life cycle, amoebiasis, ascariasis, filariasis, ringworm.

NCERT Section 7.1 16 min read 4 solved examples 8 practice questions

The viruses, how mosquitoes spread them, symptoms, severe dengue, how the two differ, and mosquito control.

10 min read 3 solved examples 7 practice questions

Immunity for Class 12 Biology and NEET: innate and acquired immunity, antibody structure diagram, active and passive, vaccines, allergies, lymphoid organs.

NCERT Section 7.2 14 min read 3 solved examples 9 practice questions

HIV and AIDS for Class 12 Biology and NEET: how HIV differs from AIDS, how the retrovirus spreads and multiplies, helper T-cell loss, ELISA and prevention.

NCERT Section 7.3 11 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Cancer for Class 12 Biology and NEET: contact inhibition, benign and malignant tumors, metastasis, carcinogens and oncogenes, detection and treatment.

NCERT Section 7.4 10 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Drugs and alcohol abuse for Class 12 Biology and NEET: opioids, cannabinoids, cocaine, tobacco, adolescence, addiction, effects and prevention.

NCERT Section 7.5 16 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Microbes in household products for Class 12 Biology and NEET: lactic acid bacteria and curd, idli, dosa and bread dough, toddy, cheese and curd vs yoghurt.

NCERT Section 8.1 9 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Microbes in industrial products for Class 12 Biology and NEET: beverages, penicillin and how it works, organic acids, enzymes, streptokinase and statins.

NCERT Section 8.2 9 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Microbes in sewage treatment for Class 12 Biology and NEET: primary and secondary treatment, BOD and COD, activated sludge, biogas and a flow diagram.

NCERT Section 8.3 11 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Microbes in biogas production for Class 12 Biology and NEET: methanogens, biogas composition, gobar gas from cattle dung and a biogas plant diagram.

NCERT Section 8.4 9 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Microbes as biocontrol agents for Class 12 Biology and NEET: organic farming, ladybirds, dragonflies, Bt and its toxin, fungi, baculoviruses and IPM.

NCERT Section 8.5 10 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Microbes as biofertilisers for Class 12 Biology and NEET: nitrogen fixers, mycorrhiza and its types, cyanobacteria, and biofertilisers vs biopesticides.

NCERT Section 8.6 7 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Principles of biotechnology for Class 12 Biology and NEET: genetic and bioprocess engineering, origin of replication and the first recombinant DNA.

NCERT Section 9.1 10 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Tools of recombinant DNA technology for Class 12 Biology and NEET: restriction enzymes, sticky ends, gel electrophoresis, vectors, pBR322, competent hosts.

NCERT Section 9.2 17 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Processes of recombinant DNA technology for Class 12 Biology and NEET: isolating and cutting DNA, PCR, transformation, bioreactors, downstream processing.

NCERT Section 9.3 13 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Biotechnology in agriculture for Class 12 Biology and NEET: tissue culture, somatic hybrids, GM crops, Bt cotton and cry genes, RNAi, with diagrams.

NCERT Section 10.1 14 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Biotechnology in medicine for Class 12 Biology and NEET: genetically engineered insulin with a diagram, ADA gene therapy, PCR, probes and ELISA.

NCERT Section 10.2 12 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Transgenic animals for Class 12 Biology and NEET: what they are, which animals are used, their five uses, alpha-1-antitrypsin, Rosie the transgenic cow.

NCERT Section 10.3 9 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Ethical issues in biotechnology for Class 12 Biology and NEET: GEAC and GM safety, patents on biological resources, the Basmati patent and biopiracy.

NCERT Section 10.4 8 min read 3 solved examples 8 practice questions

Organisms and populations for Class 12 Biology and NEET: birth and death rates, age pyramids, exponential and logistic growth and the six interactions.

NCERT Section 11.1 26 min read 3 solved examples 10 practice questions

Ecosystem structure and function for Class 12 Biology and NEET: components, species composition, stratification, the four functions and the pond.

NCERT Section 12.1 11 min read 3 solved examples 9 practice questions

Productivity for Class 12 Biology and NEET: primary productivity, GPP vs NPP, what it depends on, land versus ocean and secondary productivity.

NCERT Section 12.2 10 min read 3 solved examples 9 practice questions

Decomposition for Class 12 Biology and NEET: detritus, fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification, mineralisation and what controls the rate.

NCERT Section 12.3 10 min read 3 solved examples 9 practice questions

Energy flow in ecosystems for Class 12 Biology and NEET: PAR, grazing and detritus food chains, food webs, trophic levels, standing crop, 10 per cent law.

NCERT Section 12.4 15 min read 3 solved examples 10 practice questions

Ecological pyramids for Class 12 Biology and NEET: pyramids of number, biomass and energy, upright and inverted pyramids, and their limitations.

NCERT Section 12.5 14 min read 3 solved examples 9 practice questions

Biodiversity for Class 12 Biology and NEET: genetic, species and ecological diversity, species counts, latitude and species–area patterns, and loss.

NCERT Section 13.1 21 min read 3 solved examples 10 practice questions

Biodiversity conservation for Class 12 Biology and NEET: utilitarian and ethical reasons, hotspots, protected areas, sacred groves and ex situ methods.

NCERT Section 13.2 13 min read 3 solved examples 9 practice questions

The IUCN Red List, its threat categories (critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable) and India’s Red Data Books.

11 min read 3 solved examples 9 practice questions